(a) Dividing the contents of a spoonWhat would you use to remove the butter from the plate? A piece of paper or a knife. What are you doing with the knife or paper? Scraping or rubbing off the foreign substance. Then how was it removed? It was removed by scraping or rubbing.
Suppose some one has sharpened a pencil and let the pieces fall on the floor, what would you take to remove the foreign substance from the floor? A broom. What would you say you are doing with the broom? Sweeping. How does the movement of the broom over the floor compare with the movement of the knife over the plate? It is similar. What would you take to remove the dust from the window-sill? A duster. What would you say you are doing? Dusting. How does the movement of the duster compare with the movement of the knife and the broom? It is similar. In all of these cases of dish, floor, and sill, how did we remove the foreign substance? We scraped or rubbed it off. Name one way of removing a foreign substance. Scraping or rubbing it away.
Show a much soiled towel and ask what is usually done to clean it. It is washed. Ask the pupils to tell just what they mean by that. The towel is put in water and soap used on it. What effect will the soap and water have on the foreign substance? They will soften or dissolve it. Then what must be done next? The towel must be rubbed on a board or with the hands. What effect has this operation on the foreign substance? It scrapes or rubs the foreign substance away. Then we have another way of cleaning: By first dissolving the foreign substance, and then scraping or rubbing it away.
A number of well-known cleaning operations may then be given, and the pupils asked in each case to decide the method used—such as, whisking a coat, scrubbing a table, cleaning the teeth, or washing dishes.
Next, get lists of the common cleansing agents found in an ordinary home, and arrange them in order of coarseness.
The black-board scheme, as the lesson develops, will appear as follows:
Cleaning is removing any foreign substance.
(1) Scraping or rubbing away the foreign substance.
(2) Dissolving the foreign substance and then scraping or rubbing it away.
| (1) Duster | (6) Whiting |
| (2) Brush | (7) Bathbrick |
| (3) Broom | (8) Coarse salt |
| (4) Washboard | (9) Sand |
| (5) Knife | (10) Ashes. |
| (1) Water | (7) Washing soda |
| (2) Hot water | (8) Coal-oil |
| (3) Soap | (9) Gasolene |
| (4) Lux | (10) Acids |
| (5) Ammonia | (11) Lye. |
| (6) Borax |
| (1) Bon Ami, | (2) Dutch Cleanser, | (3) Sapolio. |
When the class have these ideas, they are ready to put them into practice, and the remainder of the lesson should be spent in practical work.
If the pupils have soiled no dishes, it may be wise to drill them first in table washing or towel washing, so as to get them ready for the next lesson when tables and towels will be used.
Gradually, in connection with the making of simple dishes, the pupils should be taught special methods of dish washing, sink cleaning, and dusting. Each day as they are appointed to different duties in cleaning, these methods should be strictly followed until they become well known.
While they are still new to the class, it will be a great help to have outlines of the kinds of cleaning which are necessary in every lesson posted conveniently in different parts of the room for reference.
These outlines may be as follows:
| 1. Glass | 5. Granite ware |
| 2. Silver | 6. Tins |
| 3. China | 7. Pots |
| 4. Crockery | 8. Steel knives and forks. |
Another preliminary part of the work will be teaching the pupils to measure and follow a recipe.
The measures used in kitchen work are teaspoon, tablespoon, pint, quart, and gallon, of which a table should be developed as follows:
| 3 | teaspoonfuls (tsp.) | 1 tablespoonful (tbsp.) |
| 16 | tbsp. | 1 cup |
| 2 | cups | 1 pint (pt.) |
| 2 | pt. | 1 quart (qt.) |
| 4 | qt. | 1 gallon (gal.) |
In connection with this table the following points should be brought out:
(a) Dividing the contents of a spoon
(b) Dividing a spoonful in halves
(c) Filling a cup
(d) Levelling a cupfulA table of equivalent measures and weights of some staple foods will also be useful and may be given to the class:
| 2 cups butter (packed solidly) | 1 | pound |
| 2 c. granulated sugar | 1 | " |
| 2 c. rice | (about) 1 | " |
| 2 c. finely chopped meat | 1 | " |
| 2 2/3 c. brown sugar | 1 | " |
| 2 2/3 c. powdered sugar | 1 | " |
| 2 2/3 c. oatmeal | 1 | " |
| 2 2/3 c. cornmeal | 1 | " |
| 4 c. white flour | 1 | " |
One and one-half hours to be divided approximately as follows—one-half hour for teaching the theory, one-half hour for the practical application of the theory, and one-half hour for housekeeping (washing of dishes, tables, sinks, etc., and putting the kitchen in order).
Note.—After the lesson on measuring is developed, the class should be given individual work which will put these ideas into practice. A simple recipe may be dictated by the teacher, step by step. Cocoa makes a good recipe for this lesson, as it affords practice in measuring liquids as well as dry ingredients, both powdered and granular. If each girl makes half a cupful of cocoa, it will give practice in dividing the contents of a spoon.
Have each pupil make half a cupful of cocoa by carrying out each step as it is dictated by the teacher, as follows:
Each pupil puts her table in order by moving all cooking utensils to the metal part of the table and wiping off any soiled spots on the wooden part; she then sits to drink the cocoa she has made.
Notes are copied from the black-board in pencil in the ordinary class note-books. The desk boards under the table tops are pulled out for this purpose. In this lesson the notes consist of:
This will be done in groups of fours, according to their previous lessons in cleaning. If necessary, some special cleaning, as dish washing or sink cleaning, may be taught at this point of the lesson:
| 1 tsp. sugar | 1/3 c. boiling water |
| 1 tsp. cocoa | 1/3 c. milk. |
In connection with a recipe, the pupils should be taught to look for three parts:
In carrying out a recipe, they should, from the first, be taught to work in the following systematic order:
For this lesson, some simple recipe which will review measuring should be clearly written on the black-board—the recipe for apple sauce or cranberry sauce would be suitable. While the pupils are learning obedience in following a recipe, it is better to keep them together in carrying out their work. The method should be written in definite, numbered steps, which may be checked off as each step is accomplished.
When the class has had instruction in cleaning, measuring, and recipes, they are ready for a series of lessons involving the use of simple recipes which will put into practice the ideas they have learned. For this practice, such recipes as the following are suggested:
Boiled potatoes, mashed potatoes; boiled parsnips; boiled celery; boiled carrots, asparagus, green peas; cranberry sauce; rhubarb sauce; preparing and combining ingredients for salads (fruit salad, potato salad, cabbage and nut salad, Waldorf salad)—the dressing being supplied; stuffed eggs; sandwiches.
The carrying out of these lessons will develop in the pupils accuracy and obedience, and make them familiar with the use and care of their utensils, as well as give opportunity for the cleaning of these and other parts of the equipment.
During these first lessons, careful supervision should be given each pupil, so that only correct habits may be formed in regard to neatness, thoroughness, quietness, and natural use of muscles.
The pupils should be encouraged to begin a book of recipes to contain neatly written copies of all they have used in school. The Art teacher might correlate the work here by assisting them to design a suitable cover for this book.
Cooking is the application of sufficient heat to make a change in the food.
(1) To make some food digestible.
(2) To change flavours and make some food more appetizing.
(3) To preserve food.
(4) To kill harmful germs in food.
(1) Dry heat—heat, only, is conveyed to the food.
(2) Moist heat—heat and moisture are conveyed to the food.
Toasting, broiling, pan-broiling, sautéing, frying, baking.
Boiling, simmering, steaming, steeping.
Note.—If the class cannot name these methods, the teacher may name and write them with only a word of comment regarding each, or they may not be given until the methods are studied.
As the moist heat methods are simpler and better known, they should be studied first. The class should be led to see that some liquid must be used to supply the moisture and should account for the common use of water for this purpose. Experiments should then be performed in heating water, and its appearance and temperature should be noted.
Note.—A preliminary lesson on the use of the thermometer may be necessary to show how to read it, and to develop the idea that it is an instrument for measuring heat. This may be taught in the regular class work, previous to the Household Management lesson.
What would you use to measure the length of the table? A foot measure. What to measure the water in a tub? A pint, quart, or gallon measure. What to measure the amount of gas burned? A gas-meter.
What do we call the instrument
In each case what does "meter" mean? It means an instrument for measuring. What name may I give to an instrument for measuring heat? You may call it a heat-meter.
Tell the pupils that, in science, many Greek words are used, and that you will put a Greek word in place of the English word "heat", namely "thermos", as in thermos bottle. What will the name become? Thermosmeter, or thermometer.
The unit of measurement (degree) should be given, and the scale taught from the black-board. Thermometers may then be given to the class to examine and use.
Saucepans having white inner surfaces are best to use for the experiments, as changes made by the heat are more plainly seen.
Observations of water under heat:
Application of these observations:
Practice should then be given in each of the moist heat methods of cooking. The common foods, such as vegetables, fruit, eggs, and milk should be used for this purpose.
After the class has carried out a method for the first time, they should be led to consider the order of work required for it. The necessary steps should be arranged to form a set of rules for reference. The effects of the method in each case should also be noted.
When the moist heat methods are well known, the dry heat methods should be taught and practised. The outlines on pages 73-81 will suggest the development under each method.
To apply the principles of boiling, as taught in a previous lesson, to the cooking of food.
One and one-half hours to be used approximately as follows: twenty-five minutes for preparation for practical work and the first part of the practical work, twenty-five minutes for the development of ideas of boiling as a method of cooking, fifteen minutes for the serving of food, twenty-five minutes for housekeeping.
(1) Have the class decide:
(a) When the fires should be lighted
(b) The dishes required for the work
(c) The kind of boiling to use.
(2) Demonstrate the scrubbing, scraping, and dicing of a carrot, also the draining of a food cooked in liquid.
(3) State the quantity of ingredients each will use.
(4) Caution the pupils as to accuracy, neatness, and quietness while working.
Have each pupil prepare the food according to the recipe and put it on to cook within a certain time. While the class works, carefully observe each pupil and give individual help to those who require it.
This will be done while the carrots are cooking. The ideas brought out from review and the class work, by questioning, will be those which are given on boiling under the methods of cooking.
As these ideas are obtained from the class, they should be written by the teacher on the black-board and by the pupils in their note-books.
The pupils will drain, season, and serve the food. Each girl will set one place on the wooden part of the table and serve herself. While the food is being eaten, the table manners of each girl should be observed, and, if necessary, corrected in a tactful manner.
The work of putting the kitchen in order may be done in groups of twos or fours.
| Carrots | Salt and pepper |
| Boiling water | Butter. |
Assign work in groups of twos—numbers one and three prepare syrup; numbers two and four prepare apples; all attend to the cooking.
(To be dealt with while food is cooking)
When the apples are tender, let each girl serve herself with what she has cooked. While the fruit is being eaten, direct attention to the flavour of apple in the syrup.
Assign the work which is necessary to put the kitchen in order, and allow the pupils to carry it out in groups of twos or fours.
| 1 apple |
| 1/4 c. sugar |
| 1/2 c. water. |
Note.—One cup of sugar will make sufficient syrup for six or seven apples.
Boiling is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food through a boiling liquid.
Simmering is a method of cooking in a liquid at a temperature of about 180 degrees.
Steaming is a method of cooking in the steam from boiling liquid.
Steeping is a method of cooking, by pouring boiling water over food, and letting it stand in a moderately warm place.
Toasting is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food directly from the fire. It is used mainly for bread.
Broiling is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food directly. It is used mainly for meat and fish in slices or thin portions.
Pan-broiling is an imitation of broiling and is a method of cooking on a hissing-hot, metal surface.
The same as in broiling.
Sautéing is a method of cooking in which the heat reaches the food through a smoking-hot, greased surface.
Baking is a method of cooking in which the heat is brought to the food through the confined heat of an oven.
Frying is a method of cooking in which the heat is brought to the food by immersing it in smoking-hot fat.
Note.—As frying requires the fat used to be at a very high temperature, it is dangerous to let young children take the responsibility in this method of cooking. For this reason, it may be wise to defer lessons on frying until the Fourth Form, or even later.
For practice in the methods of cooking, the following is suggestive:
Boiling.—Cooking of any vegetable or fruit in season or rice, macaroni, eggs, coffee
Simmering.—Dried fruit, such as prunes, peaches, apricots, apples; strong-smelling vegetables, such as cabbage, onions; porridge; stew
Steaming.—Potatoes, cauliflower, apples, peaches, cup-puddings, dumplings, fish
Steeping.—Tea, coffee, lemon rind for sauce
Toasting.—Bread, rolls
Broiling.—Steak, fish
Pan-broiling.—Steak
Sautéing.—Sliced potatoes, potato cakes, hash cakes, griddle-cakes (teacher prepares the batter)
Baking.—Apples, bananas, potatoes, scalloped potatoes, scalloped tomatoes, cheese crackers, drop biscuits, beef-loaf
Frying.—Potatoes, cod-fish balls, doughnuts (teacher prepares the dough).
The lessons which give practice in the methods of cooking will also afford excellent drills in measuring, manipulation, and cleaning. Throughout all these, the weak points of individual members of the class should receive careful attention. In the case of typical defects, much time may be saved by calling the attention of the class to these, instead of correcting them individually.
After the pupils have considered and practised the methods of cooking, they should be able to prepare any simple dish of one main ingredient, for which recipes should be given. If these cannot be used at school, they may be of service in the homes of the pupils.
Economy should be emphasized by suggesting simple ways of using left-overs, and definite recipes should be written for these. Fancy cooking should be discouraged. The teacher should aim to show how the necessary common foods may be prepared in a nutritious and attractive manner.
In this first year of practical work, the main point is the formation of correct habits of work. Cleanliness, neatness, and accuracy should be insisted on in every lesson, and deftness should be encouraged.
After the moist heat methods of cooking are learned, a special lesson on beverages may be taken, if the teacher thinks it desirable. If the subject be not taken as a whole, each beverage may be taught incidentally, when a recipe requiring little time is useful. The following will suggest an outline of facts for a formal lesson:
A beverage is a liquid suitable for drinking. Water is the natural beverage; other beverages are water with ingredients added to supply food, flavour, stimulant, or colour. Since water is tasteless in itself and also an excellent solvent, it is especially useful in making beverages.
Note.—As tea, coffee, and cocoa are ordinary household beverages, they should be specially studied. Their sources and manufacture will have been learned in Form III Junior, but their use as beverages may now be discussed and practised. It is desirable that the pupils be led to reason out correct methods of cooking each.
Note.—Because of the stimulant, young people should not drink tea or coffee.
This substance is the same as cocoa, except that it contains a much larger amount of fat.
The serving of food is incidentally a necessary part of nearly every lesson in cookery, as the pupils usually eat what they prepare. In regular class work the bare work table is used, and each pupil prepares a place for herself only. The dishes soiled during the lesson should be placed on the section covered with metal or glass at the back of the table, and the front, or wooden part, cleared to be used as a dining table. The teacher should insist on this part being clean and neatly arranged. The few dishes used should be the most suitable selected from the individual equipments, and they should be as carefully placed as for a meal. From the very first, the pupils should be trained to habits of neatness in setting the table, and in serving the food; and, what is most important, they should be trained to eat in a refined manner. Lack of time is sometimes given as an excuse for neglecting this training in the usual cookery lessons; but if the teacher insists upon neatness in work and good table manners, the pupils will soon learn to comply without loss of time.
Laying a table may be formally taught at any stage of the work of Form III, but it is most suitable after the class is capable of preparing the food for a simple home meal. The topics of the lesson may be presented as follows:
Table laid for a home dinner
Individual section of table laid for dinnerIn Form III, the children are too young to serve at table, so the lesson on Preparing and Serving Meals, page 136, has been reserved for the work of Form IV, Junior Grade. The class should, however, be carefully trained in table manners from the first. In their usual class work this will be incidentally taught. A regular lesson should include the following:
These are based upon the accepted customs of well-bred people, and have in view the convenience and comfort of all who are at the table.
They may be stated as follows:
Up to this time the pupils have been allowed to manage their individual table stoves or a gas range. They should now be taught to understand and to use an ordinary coal or wood range. Two lessons will be necessary for this purpose. After each lesson has been taught, the remainder of the period should be spent in some kind of practical work which can be accomplished in the time. Some cookery which requires only a few minutes may be reviewed, such as tea, cocoa, coffee, toast, bacon, apple sauce; drawers and cupboards may be cleaned; silver and steel may be polished; designs for wall-paper, dishes, curtains, and dress materials may be drawn; household accounts may be computed; sewing may be finished.
In introducing a lesson on the kitchen fire, ask the pupils to imagine that they have built a new house, which the workmen have just vacated. Before they can move in it must be cleaned. What kind of water is best for cleaning? Hot water. What is necessary to provide hot water? A fire.
Find out from the pupils and then write on the black-board what is necessary for a fire. What is the first requisite? Something to burn. What do we call such a substance? Fuel. Where shall we put the fuel? In a stove. Why is a stove necessary? To confine the fire.
Using a candle as fuel and a lamp chimney as a stove, light the candle and place it in the chimney. It burns only a short time and then dies out. Why? Because the oxygen of the air in the chimney is all exhausted. Then what is another requisite for a fire? Oxygen.
Imagine the room to be a stove and the chairs, books, tables, etc., to be fuel. The air in the room also contains much oxygen, so that in this room we have three requisites for a fire. It is very fortunate for us that something else is needed. We shall try to find out what it is.
Watch while I hold these strips of paper over this lighted gas stove high enough to be out of reach of the flame. What happened to them? They burst into a flame. What did the paper that I held receive that it did not get when it was lying on the table? Heat. We shall try a match in the same way, also some thin shavings. They also burn when they receive heat from the fire. Then what is another requisite for a fire? Heat. Name all of the requisites for a kitchen fire. Fuel, stove, oxygen, and heat.
Note.—Just here it is a good thing to impress the care that is necessary in regard to gasolene, coal-oil, benzine, etc., or any substance that burns at a low temperature. Bring out the fact very clearly that it is the heat that makes fuel burn, that a flame is not necessary.
Experiments to show on what the amount of heat required depends:
(1) The thickness of the fuel.
(2) The substance composing the fuel.
Note.—This will explain the order of laying the fuel for a fire and the use of a match in lighting it.
Experiments to show the means of obtaining oxygen:
Experiments to show the necessity for oxygenIt will be necessary next to lead the class to see that the supply of oxygen can be controlled:
(1) Openings directly opposite each other cause a rapid circulation of air or a "direct draught".
(2) Indirect openings cause a slower circulation of air or an "indirect draught".
A discussion of the fuels may next be taken. With pupils of Form IV it will not be wise to go into too many details regarding these. Besides the classification of the commonest ones, they may be compared from the standpoints of cost, and of the time and labour required in their use.
Classes of Fuels:
Liquid—coal-oil, gasolene, alcohol
Solid—coal (coke), wood (charcoal)
Gaseous—natural gas, coal gas.
Note.—Electricity is a means of producing heat, but cannot be called a fuel.
In developing the construction of a practical coal or wood range, it is a good idea to use the black-board and make a rough drawing to illustrate the details, as they are given by the pupils. These details should be evolved from the knowledge gained in the preceding lessons, and the drawing should not be an illustration of any particular stove.
After the best practical stove, according to the pupils' ideas, has been thought out and represented on the black-board, they should examine and criticise the school range and the stoves at home. They are then ready to be given the responsibility of managing any ordinary range.
The following are the necessary details to be considered regarding a kitchen stove:
Material.—(1) Iron, (2) steel
Shape.—Rectangular.
Compartments.—(1) Fire-box, (2) ash-box, (3) oven, (4) passage for hot air, (5) other compartments if desired, such as water tank, warming closet, etc.
Dampers.—(1) Front damper—below the fuel, to control the entrance of oxygen to the fuel. (2) Oven damper—above the fuel at the entrance to the pipe, to control the heat for the oven, and also to control the draught. (3) Check damper—at the front of the stove above the fuel, to admit a cross current of air to check the draught.
Management of the stove.—(1) Lighting the fire, (2) heating the oven, (3) arranging for over night, (4) cleaning and care.
Note.—Openings below the level of the fire increase the draught, and those above the level check it.
A kitchen coal or wood range, showing, (a) oven damper open
A kitchen coal or wood range, showing, (b) oven damper closedThroughout the training given in Household Management, the teacher should emphasize the value of labour-saving devices and aids in the home. How to economize time and energy should be a prominent feature of every practical lesson. If time permit, a lesson may be taken to consider specially such aids as are readily procurable, together with their average cost. In this lesson the fireless cooker is considered.
A fireless cookerThe principles of the fireless cooker are based on a knowledge of the laws governing the conduction and radiation of heat. For this reason, an elementary science lesson relating to these laws should precede this lesson. Such a science lesson is part of the regular grade work of Form IV, so if a specialist teaches the Household Management of that grade, she and the regular teacher should arrange to co-ordinate their lessons.
1. Food cooked in liquid:
In all cookers where stone plates are not used, only such foods as are cooked in liquids can be prepared. Examples of foods cooked in this way are, meat soup, beef-tea, meat stews, vegetables, fruit, porridge, cereal, puddings, etc.
The prepared food is put into one of the food receptacles belonging to the cooker and is placed over a fire, until it has boiled for a few minutes. The cover is then tightly adjusted, and the dish quickly locked in the cooker, to conserve the heat that the food and liquid have absorbed.
2. Food cooked in dry heat by the use of stone plates:
In this method the food is cold when it is placed in the cooker, and all the heat is supplied by stone plates placed above and below the utensil containing the food. These plates are heated for about twenty minutes over a fire, before they are used in the cooker.
Examples of food cooked in this way are, roasts of meat; baked fruit, such as apples; baked vegetables, such as potatoes or beans; cakes, such as plain cake or fruit cake; quick bread, such as corn-bread and biscuits.
3. Food cooked in liquid, aided by the heat of one stone plate:
In cases where the original heat absorbed by the food is not sufficient to complete the cooking as desired, a heated stone plate may be placed in the cooker below the utensil containing the hot food. The stone may be necessary for one of the following reasons—
(1) Because the amount of food put into the cooker is too small to contain much heat. It is always better to have the food nearly fill the dish.
(2) Because the time required is so long that the heat of the food and liquid becomes exhausted before the cooking is completed.
(3) Because it is desirable to finish the cooking in less time.
Use a large wooden box or a small trunk with a close-fitting cover. Make it as air-tight as possible by pasting thick paper all over the inside.
Pack it level with clean sawdust or excelsior (the latter preferably), until just enough height is left to set in a covered granite pail, which is to be used for holding the food. Place the pail in the centre, so that its top edge is just about half an inch below the top of the box. Then pack in more excelsior very tightly around the pail, until level with it. This will shape the "nest" for the pail.
A home-made fireless cookerMake a thick cushion, or mat, of excelsior to fit in the space between the level of the excelsior and the inside of the cover. Cover the cushion with cheesecloth or denim to keep it intact.
Note.—Only food cooked in a liquid can be prepared in a home-made cooker.
A series of lessons will be necessary for this purpose. The amount of work to be taken at one time is suggested, but this should be judged by the teacher. As in other lessons on theory, the remaining time of the lesson period should be used in practical work. Suggestions for such practical work are given under the lesson on "The Kitchen Fire", page 92.
Practice lessons, to give variety and sustain interest, should be interspersed between these lessons as desired.
The lesson may be introduced by asking the class to think in what way the body of a healthy baby, who is fed regularly, will have changed at the end of six months. It will be larger; it will have more flesh, more bone, more hair, etc. We want to get a name that will apply to any part of the body. No matter which part we examine through a microscope we find the same fine and beautiful texture, and to this we give a name similar to that given to fine, thin paper. We call it tissue—hair tissue, bone tissue, flesh tissue.
What has food done to the baby's tissues? It has enlarged its tissues; the child has grown larger. To the enlargement, or growth, of the tissues, we may apply the term, build, suggested by the building of a house. Then what may we say food does for the tissues of the body? We may say that food builds the tissues of the body.
Think of some persons who have taken food every day, and yet as long as you have known them they have not increased in size. What has food done for their tissues? The class must be told that the tissues of our bodies wear out through use, and that food has furnished the material to replace the worn-out parts. What do we say we are doing to clothes when we replace the worn parts? We are mending or repairing them. What does food do for our worn-out tissues? Food repairs the tissues of the body.
Do not think any more about the tissues of the body. Suppose you had not been able to get any food for several days. In what way would you be different from what you are now? You would not be as strong. Food gives strength or energy by being burned inside the body. There is a fire burning in our bodies all the time we are alive, the fuel being food. What do we require from the fire in our homes? We require heat. The fires in our bodies give us heat also. Any fire gives off both heat and energy. State another use of food to the body. Food produces heat and energy in the body.
But food does more for the body; it contains substances to keep our bodies in order. Suppose the clock gets out of order and does not keep good time, what does the watchmaker do to it? He regulates it. That is what certain kinds of food do for us. What then is another use of food? Food regulates the body.
Name the uses of food to the body.
1. It builds the tissues.
2. It repairs the tissues.
3. It produces heat and energy.
4. It regulates the body.
How then can we judge if a substance be a food? By deciding that it performs one of these duties in the body.
The names of the substances in food which supply the material for the different uses of the body should be taken next.
Note.—The teacher should call attention to the fact that few foods contain all these substances, some have nearly all, some have only one, some two or more. In order to get all, we must eat a variety of foods. The class is now ready to consider the well-known foods, in order to find out which of these necessary substances each food contains, and to obtain a general idea of their comparative food values.
All nature supplies us with food. The three great divisions of nature are animal, vegetable, and mineral, and from each we obtain food, though most largely from the animal and vegetable kingdoms.
Animal food is some part of an animal's body or some product of an animal: examples—meat or fish, milk, eggs.
Vegetable food is some part of a plant: examples—vegetables, fruit, seeds.
Mineral food is some constituent of the earth's crust used as food. This mineral food is obtained by drinking water which in coursing through the earth has absorbed certain minerals, by eating plants which have absorbed the minerals from the soil, or by eating animal food which was built from plant food.
This preliminary survey of the sources of all our food gives the pupils a basis for classifying the foods with which they are familiar. They may be given exercises in doing this, and will not only find them interesting, but most useful as nature study.
In beginning the analysis of the common foods, it must be remembered that the pupils have no knowledge of chemistry, and that what is found in each food must be discovered through the senses (seeing, smelling, tasting, feeling), or through a process of reasoning.
The pupils should also feel quite sure of what they are setting out to do; they are going to examine some particular, well-known food, to find which of the necessary food substances it contains. The food substances for which they are looking are water, mineral matter, nitrogenous matter, and carbonaceous matter (sugar, starch, fat).
It is better to provide each pupil with a sample of the food to be studied, but where conditions make this difficult, the one used by the teacher will suffice.
Milk is the best food to examine first, because it contains all the food elements except starch and because these can be easily found.
The pupils may each be asked to bring a half cup of milk from home. It may be allowed to stand in glasses while other work is taken.
When ready for the lesson, ask the pupils to look at the contents of the glass, and they will observe a difference of colour where the cream has risen. Nature itself has divided the milk into two parts. Pour off the top part and feel it. It feels greasy. Butter is made from this part. We have found fat—a carbonaceous food.
Move the milk around in the glass and let the pupils see that it is a liquid. Tell them that all liquid in a natural food is mostly water. We have, therefore, another food substance—water, a builder and regulator.
Let the pupils compare a glass of water with a glass of skimmed milk, and they see that something is dissolved in the water of the milk, giving it the white colour. Show them a glass of sour milk, where the white substance is separate from the water. Get the names curd and whey. Tell them how the cheesemaker separates sweet milk into curd and whey. If advisable, let them do it, but in any case show them some sweet milk separated by rennet. Examine the sweet whey. It tastes sweet, denoting the presence of sugar—another carbonaceous food.
Notice the greenish-yellow colour. Recall this same colour in water in which potatoes, cabbage, or other vegetables have been cooked. Tell the pupils that this colour is given by mineral matter being dissolved in the water.
There is still the curd of milk to examine. The use of the senses does not allow us to definitely decide what food substance the curd is. Tell the pupils it is protein, or find the name by a process of reasoning, thus: Recall the fact that babies live for several months on milk alone and during that time build all tissues of the body. Milk, therefore, must contain all tissue-building substances. Review the food substances which are necessary to build all body tissues—mineral matter, protein, and water. We have found the mineral matter and water in milk, but not the protein. Since curd is the only remaining part of milk, it must be largely protein.
Tell the pupils that the scum which comes on the top of milk, when it is boiled, is another kind of protein of which there is a small amount in solution in milk.
Lead the pupils to see that if starch were present, it would be in a raw form, and in this form is indigestible.
The analysis of milk gives a key to the food value of milk and each of its by-products (cream, butter, butter-milk, sour milk, skim milk, curd, whey, cheese, junket). These may now be briefly discussed as to composition, food value, and cost.
Milk readily absorbs odours, bacteria, etc., and should be kept in covered, sterilized dishes in a pure, cool atmosphere.
Experiments should be made to show the effect of simmering and boiling temperatures. To save time, a different experiment may be given to each pupil, and the results reported.
Note.—From the above experiments deduce the effect of heat on protein.
Practice lessons may now be given in preparing simple dishes in which milk is the main ingredient, or, at least, recipes may be given for these to be made at home. The following would be suitable: cream sauce, cream soups, custard, junket, cottage cheese, albuminized milk.
(1) Shell, (2) thick membrane, (3) white, (4) thin membrane, (5) yolk.
These parts are easily seen. Attention should be called to the pores in the shell, and it should be explained that these allow the entrance of bacteria which spoil the egg. Any means of closing these pores helps to preserve the egg.
Cover the holes in the shell as follows:
Testing eggs by floating:After an egg is laid, the liquid which it contains begins to evaporate through the pores of the shell and, as this continues, a noticeable space is left inside.
(1) Shake the egg, holding it near the ear. If the contents rattle, it is somewhat stale.
(2) Drop the egg in cold water. If it sinks, it is fresh.
(3) Hold the egg between your eye and the light. If clear, it is fresh.
(4) A rough appearance of the shell denotes freshness.
White—this should be clear and cling to the yolk.
Yolk—this should round up like a ball.
1. If eggs are to be used in the near future, they should be washed and put in a pure, cool atmosphere. The lower shelf of the refrigerator is best, as odours rise, and eggs readily absorb these.
2. If eggs are to be preserved, they should not be washed unless their condition compels it, as washing removes the natural covering of the pores. They should be stored in a clean, cool place, and packed as soon as possible.
It is wiser to develop the food substances in an egg by reasoning, rather than by examining the different parts. The shell is not used for food, so it is the contents that should be studied. The class should be guided in the following sequence of thought:
The following experiments will show the effect on both yolk and white of the usual methods of applying heat to eggs:
Note.—The eggs may be put to boil and simmer at the beginning of the lesson, and pupils designated to take them from the heat at proper times. The eggs will then be ready to examine when required.
To give practice in preparing eggs and to show their special uses the following dishes would be suitable:
For food—poached eggs on toast, simmered eggs
For cohesive (sticky) property—potato balls, fish balls
For clearing liquids—coffee
For holding air—foamy omelet
For decoration—hard-boiled eggs cut in fancy shapes for garnishing, meringue on lemon pudding, etc.
For food—egg-nog, scrambled eggs
For thickening liquids—custard, salad dressing, lemon pudding
For colouring foods—tapioca cream
For decoration—hard boiled and grated over salads.
Before beginning this part of the work, it would be most helpful if the class had one or two nature study lessons on the structure and organs of plants. With the pupils in possession of some knowledge thus acquired, the Household Management teacher has only to lead up to ideas of the preparation and value of these parts as food. These ideas should, as far as possible, follow in such a natural order that the pupils may even anticipate the sequence.
The outline may be as follows:
All vegetable food is obtained from plants; it is some part of a plant used as food.
In asking for examples of the different parts, there will be more interest and value if the questions correlate other subjects, for instance: For what fruit is Canada noted? What fruit does she import? Name a nut the squirrels gather.
From the foregoing, the pupils may infer that there are eight different foods to study. They should be led to see that in reality there is only one, as all parts of plants are, generally speaking, the same in structure. Referring to the animal body, they will know that a bone from the foot is of much the same structure as one from the face; that a piece of flesh from the leg is the same as a piece from any other part of the body. In the same way, if we study one part of a plant, it will be a type of all parts. In general the structure is as follows:
1. A framework, in cellular form, made of a substance called cellulose.
2. Material filling the cells:
(1) A juice in the cells of all parts of plants except seeds
(2) A solid in the cells of seeds.
To show the framework, some vegetable food having a white colour should be chosen, such as potato, parsnip, or apple.
It must be explained that all plants are made of a framework of numerous cells, something like a honey-comb. The cells in plants are of many different shapes, according to the plant, or the part of the plant, in which they are found. They are usually so small that they cannot be distinguished without a microscope; but occasionally they are large enough to be seen without one. Pass sections of orange or lemon, where the cells are visible. Make a drawing on the black-board of the cellular formation of a potato. Lead the class to understand that, in every case, the cell walls must be broken to get out the cell contents. To illustrate this, they may use potatoes, and break the cell walls by grating the potatoes. After they have broken up the framework, the cell contents should be strained through cheesecloth into a glass. They have now two parts to examine—cell walls and cell contents.
Cellular structure of a potatoWash the framework to free it of any cell juice and study it first. Give its name, and note its colour and texture. Compare the framework of potatoes, strawberries, lettuce, trees, etc. Tell the class that in some cases part of the cellulose is so fibrous that it is used to make thread, cloth, or twine; for instance, flax and hemp.
Cellulose is most difficult to dissolve, so that practically little of it is digested. It serves a mechanical purpose in the digestive tract by helping to fill the organs and dilute the real food. If fibrous, it acts as an irritant and overcomes sluggishness of the intestines known as constipation. The outer coats of cereals are an example of coarse cellulose, as used in brown bread and some kinds of porridge.
Examine next the juice which was contained in the cells of the potato. The liquid shows much water; the colour indicates mineral matter in solution; the odour suggests a flavour; the white sediment is starch.
Water, mineral matter, flavouring matter, starch.
Draw attention to the fact that the potato is the part of the plant which acts as a storehouse. In such parts, starch is always found as the stored form of sugar; but, in parts which are not storehouses, sugar will be found in its stead. In rare cases both are found, as in the parsnip.
Note.—This is a good time to impress the fact that plants are the source of starch for manufacturing purposes. In England, potatoes are largely used; in Canada, corn. It will be interesting to state that the early settlers obtained their starch for laundry purposes at home from potatoes, by chopping or grinding them.
The insolubility of starch in cold liquids may be effectively reviewed at this part of the lesson. The starch has been lying in the water of the potato cells for several months, yet has not dissolved. Let two or three of the class gradually heat the potato juice with its starch sediment, stirring all the time to distribute the sediment evenly. They will find that a little less than boiling temperature dissolves the starch. This will show them that heat is necessary for the solution of starch, and a heat much greater than that in the body, hence raw starch is indigestible. Recall the milk lesson and the uselessness of starch as a component of milk, unless the milk be cooked.
Squeeze the juice from a sour apple or lemon, and note the taste. Explain that all fruit juices contain more or less acid. The effects of this acid in the body are similar to those of mineral matter.
Protein is also found in plant juices; but in such small quantities that it may be disregarded as a source of food supply.
Water; mineral matter; flavouring matter; starch or sugar, or both; acid (in fruit juice).
COMPOSITION OF SOLID MATERIAL IN CELLS OF SEEDS
This part of the lesson may be developed as follows:
Note 1.—Seeds will grow in water until their stored food is used: they must then be planted in soil, to get further nourishment.
Note 2.—The two fuel foods, starch and fat, are not found together in abundance in seeds; one or the other will be much in excess. For instance, in walnuts there is a great deal of fat, while in peas and beans there is scarcely a trace of fat, but the starch is abundant.
Only a very general idea of this should be attempted. The food value of any part of a plant can be roughly estimated by considering the office of that particular part in plant structure. Nature study will assist in this. The root collects the food to send it to the parts above; the stem is a hallway through which the food is carried in a more diluted form. The leaves serve the purpose of lungs and will not contain much food, though they naturally have a good deal of flavour; parsley, sage, and tea are examples of this. The fruit is a house to protect the seeds, and is made most attractive and delicious, so that animals will be tempted to eat this part, and thus assist in the dispersal of the seeds. The fruit has comparatively little food value as building material. The seed contains the stored material to build new plants, and therefore is the most nutritive part of all. It is the only part of the plant which contains an appreciable supply of building food, that is, which can take the place of eggs or meat in the diet. Baked beans are sometimes called "nuggets of nourishment" or "the poor man's beef".
After discussing the food value of the different parts in this broad way, the pupils may be asked to consider the plant foods used in their diet and to compare their nutritive value.
The facts concerning these may be summed up as follows:
1. Green vegetables:
These generally contain much water, hardly any protein or fat, and a small amount of sugar. They are valuable mainly for their mineral matter and cellulose.
2. Root vegetables and tubers:
These are more nutritious than green vegetables, because they contain much more sugar and starch.
3. Ripe seeds (cereals, legumes, and nuts):
These are highly nutritious, because of the large amount of protein and building mineral matter they contain, and also the amount of fuel food.
It is important that the value of these be pointed out. Dried foods contain all of the constituents of fresh food excepting water and a little flavour lost in evaporation, yet they are often much cheaper. Attention should be directed to the best means of restoring the water and, if necessary, of giving an additional flavour by the use of cloves, cinnamon, etc.
Canning is a better means of preserving food for export or for use when out of season, but where the expense prohibits this method, drying is a good substitute. In districts where fruit and vegetables cannot be grown or in seasons when they cannot be obtained fresh, the dried forms are cheap and have excellent food value.
As vegetable food is eaten both raw and cooked, the pupils should be asked to decide when cooking is necessary and what they wish it to accomplish.
There are only two substances in vegetable food which will require cooking, and these are:
1. Cellulose, if it be hard or tough
2. Starch, if it be present.
The pupils have found in their experiment with the potato water, that starch cooks quickly, hence the time of cooking will depend altogether on the texture of the cellulose. When the cellulose is softened at the centre, the last part which the heat reaches, the vegetable or fruit will be cooked.
If the food is cooked in water by boiling or simmering, much of the substance will pass into the cooking water. As the cell walls become softened, they allow the cell contents to partially pass out and the cooking water to pass in to fill the space. If the food is long in cooking, the water may have more value than the vegetable, and it should not be thrown away. It may be used in two ways—as a basis for a sauce or a soup.
Note.—As the principles in the general rules have been taught, these rules may be dictated to the class.
Prepare and cook the vegetables until tender, according to the rules given above. Drain off and measure the vegetable water. For each 1/2 cup of vegetable, take 1/4 cup of the water and make into a sauce. Re-heat the vegetable in the sauce and serve in a hot dish.
Note 1.—For potatoes and tomatoes do not follow this recipe.
Note 2.—The sauce is made by thickening each cup of vegetable water with two tablespoonfuls of flour, and seasoning as desired with salt, pepper, and butter.
Note 3.—Another method of saving and using the valuable vegetable water is to make it into a soup.
Wash the fruit thoroughly. Cover with cold water and soak twenty-four hours. Put on to cook in the same water in which it has soaked. Add spices if desired. Cover closely and simmer until tender. Add the sugar and simmer ten minutes longer. Take out the fruit, and, if necessary, boil down the syrup, then pour it over the fruit.
While studying vegetable food, practice will be given in nearly every lesson in the preparation and cooking of vegetables or fruit, but after the completion of this series of lessons, these foods should be prepared and cooked with more intelligence and interest. For this reason, there may be, at the last, one general practical lesson devoted to vegetables and fruit, to review and impress the facts that have been taught. As potatoes, on account of their large amount of starch, require special care, an extra lesson may be given to this vegetable.
In the lesson on potatoes the attention of the class should be directed to the following:
A lesson on the use of starch for thickening purposes should be given before lessons on the making of a sauce or a soup from the water in which vegetables have been cooked. The necessity of separating the starch grains should be shown by experiments.
(Any powdered starch may be used)
(1) By adding a double quantity of cold liquid
(2) By adding a double quantity of sugar
(3) By adding a double quantity of melted fat.
| Milk | Flour | Butter | |
| Thin cream sauce | 1 cup | 1 tbsp. | 1 tbsp. |
| Thick cream sauce | 1 cup | 2 tbsp. | 2 tbsp. |
Note.—Use thick cream sauce to pour over a food. Use thin cream sauce when solid food substance is mixed with the sauce.
At least one practice lesson should be given on the making of these soups. The value of the vegetable water should be impressed upon the pupils, and it may be pointed out that these soups are an excellent way of using the cooking water and any left-over vegetable.
The difference between tomatoes and other vegetables should be noted. Tomatoes are a fruit and, as such, contain an acid. The acid would curdle milk and must be neutralized by the use of soda, before milk can be added.
Utensils used for cream soups(1) The liquid is heated and thickened with flour.
(2) The seasonings of butter, salt, and pepper are added.
(3) The vegetable pulp is added in any desired quantity, usually about two tbsp. to one cup of liquid.
A special recipe should be given for cream of tomato soup, so that the proportion of soda may be correct.
Note.—If flavours of onion, bay-leaf, parsley, etc., are desired, these should be cooked with the vegetables, so as to be extracted in the vegetable water.
(1) Whole or cracked grains—rice, cracked wheat, coarse oatmeal, etc.
(2) Granular—corn meal, cream of wheat, fine oatmeal, etc.
(3) Rolled or flaked grains—wheat, oats, corn, rice, etc.
(4) Powdered—wheat flour, rice flour, etc.
For 1 cup of water use 1/4 tsp. of salt and the following cereal—
Whole or cracked—1/4 cup of cereal
Granular—3 tbsp. of cereal
Rolled or flaked—1/2 cup of cereal.
Put salt and water in the inner part of a double boiler, and set directly over the fire. When steaming hot, gradually stir in the dry cereal, and keep stirring until the starch has thickened and boiled. Stir carefully, so as not to break the flakes of rolled cereals. Then set the inner dish inside the outer part of the double boiler, in which there should be boiling water, and cook from two to four hours.
Note 1.—Rice has very tender cellulose and cooks in 3/4 hr.
Note 2.—Rolled or flaked cereals have been steamed an hour or more to soften them for rolling, so require less cooking.
Note 3.—Cereals may be cooked for breakfast the day before, but should not be stirred while being re-heated.
1. Forms in which used:
(1) Ripe seeds
(2) Meals—pea meal, etc.
2. Cooking of dried legumes: